Critical Minerals – A Continental Lens

Africa possesses a significant share of the minerals essential to the global shift towards clean energy - from platinum group metals ("PGMs"), cobalt and copper to lithium. The core challenge is moving beyond extraction to develop integrated value chains, create jobs and share benefits equitably and sustainably. This article discusses how selected African jurisdictions define "critical minerals" and assess the strategies being adopted to unlock industrialisation and promote inclusive growth.

How selected jurisdictions define "critical"

Ghana

Ghana has no statutory definition or fixed list of "critical minerals". Policy references appear in the Minerals and Mining Policy and the 2023 Green Minerals Policy (awaiting parliamentary approval), which highlights battery‑related "green minerals" such as lithium, bauxite, manganese, nickel, copper, cobalt and graphite. In practice, Ghana's view of criticality extends beyond green minerals to resources essential to economic security, electrification, domestic value addition and resilient supply chains. Given Ghana's position as Africa's leading gold producer, gold accounts for roughly 90% of mineral exports and is a major GDP contributor. Gold is integral to Ghana's conception of critical minerals, however other critical minerals such as lithium, bauxite and manganese are receiving increased attention.

Zambia

Zambia has a national Critical Minerals Strategy that was passed in 2024 for a five year period. The strategy defines critical minerals as naturally occurring minerals crucial to contemporary technologies and national growth, especially for green energy applications such as solar photovoltaics ("PVs"), wind turbines and EV batteries. Zambia's list includes cobalt, copper, graphite, lithium, manganese, tin, nickel, rare earth elements, sugilite and uranium, reflecting their importance to domestic development and global technological advancement.

Namibia

Namibia has no formal definition or fixed list of critical minerals, but the 2021 Minerals Beneficiation Strategy identifies "strategic" minerals that functionally serve as critical. Assessment factors include economic importance, supply risk, relevance to the green transition and domestic abundance. On this basis, Namibia views uranium, copper, lithium, manganese, graphite and selected rare earth elements as critical, given their roles in national planning, job creation and the clean energy value chain. Namibia's status as the world's third‑largest uranium producer underscores the sector's strategic weight.

South Africa

South Africa's Critical Minerals and Metals Strategy which was published in May 2025 adopts a context‑specific definition: critical minerals are those essential for the overall economic development, job creation, industrial advancement and contribution to national security. South Africa's critical minerals list is informed by export significance, industrial importance, economic contribution, development alignment and global demand. The strategy identifies 21 minerals, grouped by criticality. High criticality minerals include platinum, manganese, iron ore, coal and chrome; minerals with moderate‑to‑high criticality include gold, vanadium and rare earth elements; minerals with moderate criticality include copper, cobalt, lithium, nickel and uranium.

Why critical minerals matter now

Africa holds more than 30% of global critical mineral reserves. Managed well, these resources can drive economic transformation through value addition and beneficiation, industrialisation large‑scale job creation and creation of regional markets, underpinned by strong environmental management. If handled poorly, Africa risks repeating the past: continued export of low‑value raw materials, importing high‑value finished goods, exploitative outcomes and environmental degradation that exacerbates climate impacts, - losing the midstream to other regions and missing the capital now flowing to bankable, policy-aligned projects

Industrialisation and the energy transition

Global industries are retooling for a low carbon economy, and Africa's geology is central. Commercial‑scale deposits of lithium, manganese, nickel, copper and rare earth elements position the continent as a key supplier, with the DRC dominating global cobalt supply, Guinea holding a major share of bauxite reserves, Ghana prominent in manganese, Namibia hosting significant lithium and South Africa with significant reserves of manganese. US and EU policy frameworks seek resilient, responsible supply chains for these minerals - an opportunity Africa can leverage to accelerate industrialisation. Continental frameworks - the Africa Green Minerals Strategy, the African Mining Vision and the African Continental Free Trade Area - align mineral endowments with electrification, local beneficiation and, local participation, industrialisation and regional offtake and supplier development. Positive policy signals include the DRC raising certain critical‑mineral royalties to 10% and introducing annual quotas with effect from 16 October 2025 designed to stabilise global supply and prices.

Country strategies: Highlights, gaps and momentum

South Africa: Strategy highlights and implementation gaps

The strategy is not embedded in a modernised mining policy aligned with an industrial policy. Investment incentives are thin: there are no tax holidays, royalty relief or other targeted financial measures to attract exploration and critical‑mineral development. Minerals are ranked by criticality, but there is no differentiated regime to operationalise that ranking. Beneficiation goals are aspirational given constraints in power, logistics and port performance. Regulatory uncertainty persists; the May 2025 Mineral Resources Development Bill includes requirements for mandatory beneficiation by producers but leaves key investment issues unresolved. An actionable implementation plan with accountability mechanisms has not been published.

Namibia: Beneficiation as industrial policy

Namibia's framework centres on the 2021 Minerals Beneficiation Strategy (complementing the 2003 Mineral Policy) to shift from exporting raw ore to local processing and higher‑value exports. The strategy also aims to attract both domestic and foreign investment by improving the regulatory environment, offering targeted incentives and developing infrastructure such as special economic zones, reliable energy and transport logistics. In May 2025, Namibia banned exports of certain unprocessed critical minerals - lithium, cobalt, manganese, graphite and rare earth elements - to incentivise domestic processing capacity. Partnerships, including with the EU on rare earths, aim to anchor investment, job creation, skills transfer and position Namibia as a reliable global supplier.

Zambia: Highlights and measures to advance critical minerals

Zambia's Critical Minerals Strategy highlights four main strategies to harness Zambia's mineral wealth and support national development and the global energy transition. The four strategic objectives include:

1. Advancing geological mapping and resource management through training and use of advanced technologies;
2. Enhancing government and private sector partnerships, including the creation of a Special Purpose Vehicle ("SPV") to hold stakes in new projects;
3. Promoting beneficiation and value addition by encouraging local processing and offering tax incentives: and
4. Fostering research and development.

In summary, the four objectives seek to ensure the following:

Firstly, that Zambia's geological knowledge increases steadily by increased support toward geological mapping, to ensure efficient mining and exploration. The government further seeks to encourage government and private sector partnerships, by among other things, the formulation of policies that bolster investor confidence in the mining sector. In addition, the government seeks to incorporate a special purpose vehicle that will hold a stake in new critical mining strategies.

Of importance for the government is beneficiation and value addition to the minerals actually extracted from Zambia. This will enable industrialisation, job creation and general increase in income for the country. The government seeks to put in place policies and regulations to encourage local processing of minerals.

Lastly, the government is cognizant of the need for advanced research regarding mining and various mining methods that are more efficient. For this reason, the government seeks to invest in research and development to ensure among other things, the development of various research and mining hubs for the benefit of the mining sector.

In relation to measures that have been taken to advance critical minerals, Zambia enacted the Mineral Regulation Commission Act, creating an independent commission to oversee the sector, including licensing - bolstering investor confidence and public‑private collaboration. The Geological and Minerals Development Act supports advanced geological mapping under the Director of Geological Survey. Energy‑sector reforms, notably an open‑access policy, allow mines to procure power from independent producers via the national grid - important amid power constraints. These acts have greatly enhanced government and private sector partnerships. In addition, the government has recently passed the Local Content Regulations which promote the engagement of Zambian owned contractors by mining companies in Zambia.

The 2026 budget allocates funds for mineral processing hubs, marketing centres, geological mapping (with about 34% of the country mapped as of 2025) and research and development, including support for university‑based mining research hubs. The budget also earmarks funding for dedicated research hubs aligned to the national strategy, to advance mining technologies and strengthen environmental protection.

What will unlock sustainable value?

Opportunities lie in Africa's resource base and the ability to unlock prospectivity through better geoscience, disciplined and high‑quality open data, clear work‑programme obligations with renewal caps and state relinquishments. Many jurisdictions, including Ghana, have well‑understood licensing frameworks that support investor certainty, while community benefit mechanisms are maturing. Governments are increasingly negotiating project‑specific terms, such as higher royalties, larger free‑carried interests and state and local equity to share in the upside and anchor local beneficiation. Key bottlenecks include limited and outdated geoscientific coverage in several countries (for example, Nigeria and Côte d'Ivoire and, to an extent, Ghana), fragmented and onerous multi‑agency permitting that causes delays and adds cost, and policy volatility (including changes driven by political instability) that affects local‑content rules and tenure certainty. Infrastructure deficits - weak roads and rail, unreliable grid power and water constraints - remain binding constraints that can divert investment to better‑served regions.

Getting export bans right

Export bans have become a common tool to push beneficiation and value addition. Recent examples include measures in the DRC and Zimbabwe (on raw lithium and chrome), and in Namibia. For bans to be effective, they must be paired with enabling conditions: bankable projects, reliable and affordable power, efficient logistics and legal certainty. Without these, bans tend to suppress production, increase informality and trigger force majeures and possible breaches by mining companies in respect of their long term offtake agreements (a case in point being the DRC). Well‑sequenced bans, aligned with clear implementation planning and investment in enablers, are more likely to deliver intended outcomes.

The path forward

Africa's critical minerals can be a catalyst for diversified growth, resilient supply chains, inclusive development and creation of regional markets. Converting geological advantage into industrial capability requires coherent strategies that link mining, energy and industrial policy; invest in enabling infrastructure and skills; modernise licensing and data systems; and provide regulatory certainty with clear implementation pathways. With these elements in place, the continent can move decisively beyond extraction - building globally competitive value chains that create jobs, deepen local participation and deliver sustainable prosperity.

This article is part of an ENSign podcast, if you would like to listen, click here.

The content of this article is intended to provide a general guide to the subject matter. Specialist advice should be sought about your specific circumstances.